Biography of Jonas Salk Inventor of the Polio Vaccine

Jonas Salk (October 28, 1914 – October 28, 1995) was an American medical researcher and physician. While serving as the head of the Virus Research Lab at the University of Pittsburgh, Salk discovered and perfected the first vaccine found to be safe and effective in preventing polio or infantile paralysis, one of the most-feared and crippling diseases of the early 20th century. Fast Facts: Jonas Salk Occupation: Medical researcher and physicianKnown For: Developed first successful polio vaccineBorn: October 28, 1914 in New York City, New YorkDied: June 23, 1995 in La Jolla, CaliforniaEducation: City College of New York, B.S., 1934; New York University, M.D., 1939Notable Awards: Presidential Citation (1955); Congressional Gold Medal (1975); Presidential Medal of Freedom (1977)Spouse(s): Donna Lindsay (m. 1939-1968); Franà §oise Gilot (m. 1970)Children:  Peter, Darrell, and JonathanFamous Quote: â€Å"I feel that the greatest reward for doing is the opportunity to do more.† Early Life and Education Born in New York City to European immigrants Daniel and Dora Salk on October 28, 1914, Jonas resided in the New York Boroughs of the Bronx and Queens with his parents and  his two younger brothers, Herman and Lee. Though they were poor, Salk’s parents stressed the importance of education to their sons. At age 13, Salk entered Townsend Harris High School, a public school for intellectually gifted students. After completing high school in just three years, Salk attended the City College of New York (CCNY), earning a Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry in 1934. After earning his M.D. from New York University in 1939, Salk served a two-year medical internship at New York City’s Mount Sinai Hospital. As a result of his efforts at Mount Sinai, Salk was awarded a fellowship to the University of Michigan, where he studied alongside renowned epidemiologist Dr. Thomas Francis Jr., in an attempt to develop a vaccine for the flu virus. Personal and Family Life Salk married social worker Donna Lindsay on the day after he graduated from medical school in 1939. Before divorcing in 1968, the couple had three sons: Peter, Darrell, and Jonathan. In 1970, Salk married Franà §oise Gilot, a French painter and former romantic partner of Pablo Picasso. Development of the Salk Polio Vaccine In 1947, Salk was named head of the University of Pittsburgh’s Virus Research Lab, where he began his history-making research on polio. In 1948, with added funding from President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis—now called the March of Dimes—Salk expanded his laboratory and research team. By 1951, Salk had identified three distinct strains of the polio virus and had developed a vaccine he believed would prevent the disease. Known as a â€Å"killed virus,† the vaccine utilized laboratory-grown live polio viruses that had been made chemically incapable of reproducing. Once in the patient’s bloodstream, the vaccine’s benign polio virus tricked the immune system into producing disease-fighting antibodies without the risk of exposing healthy patients to live polio virus. Salk’s use of â€Å"killed virus† was looked at skeptically by most virologists at the time, especially Dr. Albert Sabin, who believed that only live viruses could be effective in vaccines.   Testing and Approval After preliminary tests on laboratory animals proved successful, Salk began testing his polio vaccine on children on July 2, 1952. In one of the largest medical tests in history, nearly 2 million young â€Å"polio pioneers† were injected with the vaccine over the next two years. In 1953, Salk tested the still-experimental vaccine on  himself and his wife and sons.  Ã‚   On April 12, 1955, the Salk polio vaccine was declared safe and effective. The headlines screamed, â€Å"Polio is Conquered!† as celebrations erupted across the nation. Suddenly a national hero, the 40-year-old Salk was given a special presidential citation by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in a White House ceremony. A tearful Eisenhower told the young researcher, â€Å"I have no words to thank you. I am very, very happy.† Impact of the Salk Vaccine The Salk vaccine had an immediate  impact. In 1952, the College of Physicians of Philadelphia had reported more than 57,000 cases of polio in the United States. By 1962, that number had fallen to less than one thousand. Salk’s vaccine would soon be replaced by Albert Sabin’s live virus vaccine because it was less expensive to produce and could be administered orally rather than by injection. On the day his vaccine was declared â€Å"safe, effective and potent,† Salk was interviewed by legendary television news anchor Edward R. Murrow. When asked who owned the patent, Salk replied, â€Å"Well, the people, I would say,† referring to the millions of dollars for research and testing raised by the March of Dimes campaign. He added, â€Å"There is no patent. Could you patent the sun?† Philosophical Views Jonas Salk subscribed to his own unique philosophy he called â€Å"biophilosophy.† Salk described biophilosophy as a â€Å"biological, evolutionary point of view to philosophical, cultural, social and psychological problems.† He wrote several books on the topic of biophilosophy throughout his lifetime. In a 1980 interview by the New York Times, Salk shared his thoughts on biophilosophy and how drastic changes in the human population would bring new innovative ways of thinking about human nature and medicine. â€Å"I think of biological knowledge as providing useful analogies for understanding human nature,† he said. â€Å"People think of biology in terms of such practical matters as drugs, but its contribution to knowledge about living systems and ourselves will in the future be equally important.† Honors and Awards Defeating polio brought Salk a raft of honors from politicians, colleges, hospitals, and public health organizations. A few of the most notable of these include: 1955: awarded a special presidential citation from U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower.1955: given the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania’s Meritorious Service Medal.1958: elected to the Polio Hall of Fame, a part of the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation in Warm Springs, Georgia.1975: awarded the Congressional Gold Medal.1976: awarded the Academy of Achievements Golden Plate Award.1977: given the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Jimmy Carter.2012: in honor of Salk’s birthday, October 24 was designated â€Å"World Polio Day.† In addition, several noted universities and medical colleges offer scholarships in Salk’s memory. Later Years and Legacy In 1963, Salk established and directed his own medical research organization, the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, where he and his team sought cures for diseases including cancer, multiple sclerosis, and diabetes. After being named the institute’s founding director in 1975, Salk would continue to study AIDS, HIV, Alzheimer’s, and aging until his death. Salk died of heart disease at age 80 on June 23, 1995, at his home in La Jolla, California. While he will always be remembered as the man who stopped polio, Salk contributed to other advances in the fields of medicine, biology, philosophy, and even architecture. As a staunch advocate for the practical, rather than the theoretical, use of scientific research, Salk was responsible for several advances in vaccinology—the creation of vaccines for the treatment of human and animal diseases. In addition, Salk’s unique â€Å"biophilosophical† view of human life and society led him to create the field of psychoneuroimmunology—the study of the effect of the mind on health and resistance to disease. Sources .†About Jonas Salk – Salk Institute for Biological Studiesâ€Å" Salk Institute for Biological StudiesGlueck, Grace. Salk Studies Mans Future The New York Times, April 8, 1980Oshinsk, David. â€Å"‘s.†Jonas Salk: A Life,’ by Charlotte DeCroes Jacob New York Times book review, June 5, 2015.†A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries: Salk produces polio vaccineâ€Å" PBS.org

The 4p Classification of the Marketing Mix Revisited

The 4P s Classification of the Marketing Mix Revisited This article, addresses the prime classifications scheme in marketing, the 4P configuration of the marketing mix. The marketing discipline needs a strong classification of the marketing mix, not only to stimulate conceptual integration and purification of the discipline, but also for meaningful measurement of marketing mix efforts and their effects. Also, managers need a clear classification of all instruments at their disposal in order to assess and judge the instruments, objectives, interactions, and restrictions. Last, but not least students need to work with a clear and logical classification. This paper will first outline and comment on the origin and application of†¦show more content†¦From the authors perspective they base two explicit criteria: the main generic function performed and the basic versus complementary nature of the specific instrument’s use. The paper terms the element of the marketing mix used in performing the functions necessary for making the exchange happen as â€Å"generic† The four generic functions can be summarized as:1. configuring something valued by the prospective exchange party. 2. Determining the compensation and the sacrifices the prospective exchange party must make in exchange for the offer.3.Placing the offer at the disposal of the prospective exchange party. 4.Bringing the offer to the attention of the prospective exchange party, keeping its attention on the offer and influencing-normally in a positive way its feeling and preferences about the offer. Sales promotion is not taken up as a separate generic functional category, as this category is not essential to bring about a transaction. Several marketing mix instruments and categories can be realized in each of these generic functions. A prime example, the satisfaction of the buyers needs will be fulfilled mainly by the product characteristics, but the other marketing mix categories can add to that result. Promotion, imply that there is a sound basic marketing mix that might need support in some circumstances. SomeShow MoreRelatedMarketing Mix Revisited11165 Words   |  45 Pages407-438 The Marketing Mix Revisited: E. Constantinidesi Towards the 21^* Century Marketing The paper assesses the current standing of the 4Ps Marketing Mix framework as the dominant marketing management paradigm and identifies market developments, environmental changes, and trends, as well as changing academic attitudes likely to affect the future of the Mix as theoretical concept and also the favourite management tool of marketing practitioners. 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Shui Fabrics Question 1 Ans Free Essays

Economic factors include economic growth, interest rates, exchange rates and theinflation rate. These factors have major impacts on how businesses operate and makedecisions. For example, interest rates affect a firm’s cost of capital and therefore to what extent a business grows and expands. We will write a custom essay sample on Shui Fabrics Question 1 Ans or any similar topic only for you Order Now Exchange rates affect the costs of exporting goods and supply and price of imported goods in an economy. There are economic differences that influence the relationship between the partners at Shui Fabrics. Chiu Wai, operated Shanghai Fabrics LTC located in China, before it became a joint venture with Rocky River Industries in the United States. When the companies became a venture, Chiu Wai became the Deputy General Manager for Shui Fabrics in China and venturing company Rocky River Industries located in US. Ray Betzell who is the General Manager for Shui Fabrics came to China from Rocky River Industries. Many companies who do business in others countries and cultures fail miserably. Managers must do their homework and learn the business ethic and culture lifestyles before even considering venturing into markets in different counties. To me it seems like neither of the managers did their homework and are having problems maintaining the economic factors that influence their company. A developing country is a non-industrialized poor country that is seeking to develop its resources by industrialization. A developed country is a country that has a high level of development according to some criteria such as income per capita and industrialization. Political-Legal factors include discrimination, consumer, antitrust, employment, and health and safety law. They also include how and to what degree a government intervenes in the economy. Specifically, political factors include areas such as tax policy, labor law, environmental law, trade restriction tariffs, and political stability. These factors can affect how a company operates, its costs, and the demand for its products. Political factors may also include goods and serves which the government wants to provide or be provided and those that the government does now want to be provided. Furthermore, governments have great influence on the health, education, and infrastructure of a nation. Political officials are going to be a big part of the team because they have strong influence on economic life in China. Ray must reach out to them and understand their goals. Success will depend on the personal involvement of top executives. The partners differ dramatically in terms of what constitutes an acceptable financial return. Chiu Wai is happy with achieving a 5% to 6% profit and believes he is viewed as a local hero. Upon achieving his goal he feels that he has done a good job for his country morally and for their side of enterprise by creating jobs for close to 3,000 people. He wants to grow the scope of Shui Fabrics and establish a national brand. Ray Betzell wants a 20% ROI and will only consider growth if it improves profitability, has no interest in creating employment unless it improves the bottom line, is considering maybe having to layoff employees to improve bottom line. He wants to improve quality, and sees no benefit to creating a Chinese brand because it views China as a low-cost manufacturing platform rather than a market. Social factors include the cultural aspects and include health consciousness, populations growth rate, age distribution, career attitudes and emphasis on safely. Trends in social factors affect the demand for a company’s products and how the company operates. With this being said, Ray needs to move outside his personal comfort zone as a manager. There seems to be a lack of clear, shared strategy between the two partners. When the company started 10 years ago, Rocky River has launched Shui Fabrics, a 50/50 joint venture between the U. S. extile manufacture and the Chinese company, to produce dye, and coat fabric for sale to both Chinese and international sportswear manufacturers. Intent seemed clear in beginning after many obstacles, considerable red tape and several money losing years the joint venture was fulfilling China expectations and those of local government and party officials. It seems there was once a clear strategy that has been forgotten over the course of ten year s. Another social factor that is different between the partners would be that a profit over 20% return on investment may be perceived as Western exploitation. When it comes to doing business in China, respect for people’s feelings is paramount – this sensitivity that needs to be taken in respect to people’s ‘face’. Face – a cliche, is the currency of advancement. It’s like a social bank account. You spend it and you save it and you invest. And when you take away somebody’s face you take way someone’s fundamental sense of security. Because of China’s history of exploitation by foreign countries who colonized China or raided China for business purposes, particularly in the business sphere, Chinese do not want to be seen culturally as having been ‘had’ by Western usinesspeople. (http://www. nytimes. com/2010/12/14/business/global/14iht-busnav14. html)Chiu Wai is pleased with the way the company is operating and feels that Shui is generating just the right level of profit especially because many U. S. -Chinese joint ventures are still operating in red tape. He se es no reason why Ray’s American bosses shouldn’t be more than satisfied with their 5% annual return on investment. This tells me that Chiu is unclear of his company’s strategic goals. Without a clear strategy it is impossible to choose right structure and extent of cooperation with a foreign partner. Unfortunately Chiu Wai attitude at Shui Fabrics jeopardizes the success of joint venture investment. As you can see the partners don’t share the same vision or philosophy at Shui Fabrics, the joint venture within China and the U. S. The disparity in viewpoints can dramatically hamper performance. In order for them to make the company succeed they need to come up with a clear, shared strategy that they both can agree and understand. Power Distance is the extent to which a community accepts and endorses authority, power differences and status privileges. In China, social relationships are formal, hierarchical. People mostcomfortable in the presence of a hierarchy in which they know their position andthe customs/rules for behavior in the situation. The Americans social relationships are informal, egalitarian. People mostcomfortable with their social equals; importance of social rankings minimized. 2. Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which a society, organization, or group relies onsocial norms, rules, and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events. In China, obligation relationships with other people involve reciprocalobligations. In American, obligation people avoid interdependent relationships andsituations that might entail long term obligations. 3. Individualism and collectivism Individualism stands for a society in which the ties between individuals are loose and everyone is expected to look after him/herself and hisor her immediate family only. Collectivism stands for society in which people from birthonwards are integrated into strong cohesive in-groups, which throughout people’slifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. The Chinese are collectivist because they place higher value on groupcooperation and individual modesty. The Americans are individualism because they place higher value on self-reliance. Self-promotion is more accepted. High value on freedom from externallyimposed constraints. 4. Masculinity/femininity indicates the extent to which dominant values in a society tendto be assertive and look more interested in things than in concerning for people and thequality of life. The Chinese are relationship-oriented maintaining a harmonious relationshiphas priority over accomplishing tasks. Americans have task-oriented relationships that are less important than gettingthe work done. 5. Assertiveness is the degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational, andaggressive in their relationships with others. The Chinese avoid direct confrontation, open criticism, and controversionaltopics. Concern maintaining harmony and with face. Americans are willing to confront directly, criticize, discuss controversionaltopics, press personal opinions about what they consider the truth. Little concernwith face. 6. Future Orientation is the degree to which a collective encourages and rewards futureoriented behaviors such as planning and delaying gratification. The Chinese pay relatively more attention to the past and the longer termfuture. Americans are less interested in the past they focus on the near-term future7. Gender differentiation is the degree to which a collective minimized gender inequality. In China, traditionally a person’s status in the society was based importantlyon inherited characteristics such as age, gender, and family. This is changing. In America, traditionally a person’s status in the society was based importantlyon inherited characteristics such as age, gender, and family. This is changing. 8. Performance orientation How to cite Shui Fabrics Question 1 Ans, Papers

Shui Fabrics Question 1 Ans Free Essays

Economic factors include economic growth, interest rates, exchange rates and theinflation rate. These factors have major impacts on how businesses operate and makedecisions. For example, interest rates affect a firm’s cost of capital and therefore to what extent a business grows and expands. We will write a custom essay sample on Shui Fabrics Question 1 Ans or any similar topic only for you Order Now Exchange rates affect the costs of exporting goods and supply and price of imported goods in an economy. There are economic differences that influence the relationship between the partners at Shui Fabrics. Chiu Wai, operated Shanghai Fabrics LTC located in China, before it became a joint venture with Rocky River Industries in the United States. When the companies became a venture, Chiu Wai became the Deputy General Manager for Shui Fabrics in China and venturing company Rocky River Industries located in US. Ray Betzell who is the General Manager for Shui Fabrics came to China from Rocky River Industries. Many companies who do business in others countries and cultures fail miserably. Managers must do their homework and learn the business ethic and culture lifestyles before even considering venturing into markets in different counties. To me it seems like neither of the managers did their homework and are having problems maintaining the economic factors that influence their company. A developing country is a non-industrialized poor country that is seeking to develop its resources by industrialization. A developed country is a country that has a high level of development according to some criteria such as income per capita and industrialization. Political-Legal factors include discrimination, consumer, antitrust, employment, and health and safety law. They also include how and to what degree a government intervenes in the economy. Specifically, political factors include areas such as tax policy, labor law, environmental law, trade restriction tariffs, and political stability. These factors can affect how a company operates, its costs, and the demand for its products. Political factors may also include goods and serves which the government wants to provide or be provided and those that the government does now want to be provided. Furthermore, governments have great influence on the health, education, and infrastructure of a nation. Political officials are going to be a big part of the team because they have strong influence on economic life in China. Ray must reach out to them and understand their goals. Success will depend on the personal involvement of top executives. The partners differ dramatically in terms of what constitutes an acceptable financial return. Chiu Wai is happy with achieving a 5% to 6% profit and believes he is viewed as a local hero. Upon achieving his goal he feels that he has done a good job for his country morally and for their side of enterprise by creating jobs for close to 3,000 people. He wants to grow the scope of Shui Fabrics and establish a national brand. Ray Betzell wants a 20% ROI and will only consider growth if it improves profitability, has no interest in creating employment unless it improves the bottom line, is considering maybe having to layoff employees to improve bottom line. He wants to improve quality, and sees no benefit to creating a Chinese brand because it views China as a low-cost manufacturing platform rather than a market. Social factors include the cultural aspects and include health consciousness, populations growth rate, age distribution, career attitudes and emphasis on safely. Trends in social factors affect the demand for a company’s products and how the company operates. With this being said, Ray needs to move outside his personal comfort zone as a manager. There seems to be a lack of clear, shared strategy between the two partners. When the company started 10 years ago, Rocky River has launched Shui Fabrics, a 50/50 joint venture between the U. S. extile manufacture and the Chinese company, to produce dye, and coat fabric for sale to both Chinese and international sportswear manufacturers. Intent seemed clear in beginning after many obstacles, considerable red tape and several money losing years the joint venture was fulfilling China expectations and those of local government and party officials. It seems there was once a clear strategy that has been forgotten over the course of ten year s. Another social factor that is different between the partners would be that a profit over 20% return on investment may be perceived as Western exploitation. When it comes to doing business in China, respect for people’s feelings is paramount – this sensitivity that needs to be taken in respect to people’s ‘face’. Face – a cliche, is the currency of advancement. It’s like a social bank account. You spend it and you save it and you invest. And when you take away somebody’s face you take way someone’s fundamental sense of security. Because of China’s history of exploitation by foreign countries who colonized China or raided China for business purposes, particularly in the business sphere, Chinese do not want to be seen culturally as having been ‘had’ by Western usinesspeople. (http://www. nytimes. com/2010/12/14/business/global/14iht-busnav14. html)Chiu Wai is pleased with the way the company is operating and feels that Shui is generating just the right level of profit especially because many U. S. -Chinese joint ventures are still operating in red tape. He se es no reason why Ray’s American bosses shouldn’t be more than satisfied with their 5% annual return on investment. This tells me that Chiu is unclear of his company’s strategic goals. Without a clear strategy it is impossible to choose right structure and extent of cooperation with a foreign partner. Unfortunately Chiu Wai attitude at Shui Fabrics jeopardizes the success of joint venture investment. As you can see the partners don’t share the same vision or philosophy at Shui Fabrics, the joint venture within China and the U. S. The disparity in viewpoints can dramatically hamper performance. In order for them to make the company succeed they need to come up with a clear, shared strategy that they both can agree and understand. Power Distance is the extent to which a community accepts and endorses authority, power differences and status privileges. In China, social relationships are formal, hierarchical. People mostcomfortable in the presence of a hierarchy in which they know their position andthe customs/rules for behavior in the situation. The Americans social relationships are informal, egalitarian. People mostcomfortable with their social equals; importance of social rankings minimized. 2. Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which a society, organization, or group relies onsocial norms, rules, and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events. In China, obligation relationships with other people involve reciprocalobligations. In American, obligation people avoid interdependent relationships andsituations that might entail long term obligations. 3. Individualism and collectivism Individualism stands for a society in which the ties between individuals are loose and everyone is expected to look after him/herself and hisor her immediate family only. Collectivism stands for society in which people from birthonwards are integrated into strong cohesive in-groups, which throughout people’slifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. The Chinese are collectivist because they place higher value on groupcooperation and individual modesty. The Americans are individualism because they place higher value on self-reliance. Self-promotion is more accepted. High value on freedom from externallyimposed constraints. 4. Masculinity/femininity indicates the extent to which dominant values in a society tendto be assertive and look more interested in things than in concerning for people and thequality of life. The Chinese are relationship-oriented maintaining a harmonious relationshiphas priority over accomplishing tasks. Americans have task-oriented relationships that are less important than gettingthe work done. 5. Assertiveness is the degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational, andaggressive in their relationships with others. The Chinese avoid direct confrontation, open criticism, and controversionaltopics. Concern maintaining harmony and with face. Americans are willing to confront directly, criticize, discuss controversionaltopics, press personal opinions about what they consider the truth. Little concernwith face. 6. Future Orientation is the degree to which a collective encourages and rewards futureoriented behaviors such as planning and delaying gratification. The Chinese pay relatively more attention to the past and the longer termfuture. Americans are less interested in the past they focus on the near-term future7. Gender differentiation is the degree to which a collective minimized gender inequality. In China, traditionally a person’s status in the society was based importantlyon inherited characteristics such as age, gender, and family. This is changing. In America, traditionally a person’s status in the society was based importantlyon inherited characteristics such as age, gender, and family. This is changing. 8. Performance orientation How to cite Shui Fabrics Question 1 Ans, Papers